Author: Changming Wang I. Introduction According to current physics, a quantum [1] is the minimum amount of any physical entity (such ...
Author: Changming Wang
I. Introduction
According
to current physics, a quantum[1] is the minimum amount of any
physical entity (such as a photon) involved in an interaction,
emphasising that the magnitude of the physical entity can take on only discrete
values consisting of integer multiples of one quantum.
But the current physics has not answered the fundamental questions of a quantum:
- How is a quantum produced?
- Why is a quantum discrete in its magnitude?
Without answering the above fundamental
questions, the hypothesis of quantisation, with the definition of a quantum, is
questionable. And the foundation of quantum mechanics is flimsy.
In his first law of motion, Isaac
Newton described inertia as the natural tendency of objects in motion to remain
in motion and objects at rest to remain at rest, unless a force causes the
velocity to change.[2]
So, Newton had
realised that inertia has two states: inertia in motion and inertia at rest.
But the causes of them were unknown.
The
following Principles of Matter or Laws of Unity discovers the causes of inertia
and demonstrates that “inertia in motion” is a property of a free particle,
which redefines a quantum.
II. The Principles of Matter
A free particle is described by the Principles of Matter or Laws of Unity, updated from my original version.[3][4][5]
- Matter is any substance that has mass and energy. Mass and energy are properties of matter, not physical entities.
- Matter retains its potential-energy (Ep) and sharing-energy (Es) as a unity member (Ep + Es), within a hierarchical unit called a unity, until being forced out of the unity by sufficient external excess-energy (Ee ≥ Es) as a free particle with the Ee (Ep + Es + Ee). See Figure 1: Matter.
- Matter expresses both Es and Ee as measurable (vector) forces,
and combine them into a unity force or inertia:
- Matter does not express its (scalar) Ep but converts its Ep between its Es and Ee (as shown in Figure 1: Matter). For example, when going up in an airplane, our weight decreases while our potential-energy increases (Es → Ep). At the same time, the plane’s external excess-energy also increases our potential-energy (Ee → Ep). When going even higher in a spacecraft, we become “weightless” (weighing less). When landing on the Moon or Earth, our potential-energy decreases while our weight increases (Ep → Es).
- Breaking free a member with Es from a unity requires sufficient external excess-energy (Ee ≥ Es), causing inertia-in-motions and heat transfers (Ee → Ee), leading to new unities. The more energy is shared (Ep → Es, such as in a nuclear fusion), the tighter the formed unity (such as the produced nucleus unity), the more external excess-energy is required to break the unity, and vice versa (such as in beta decay).
As proposed above:
- Gravity or weight or inertia-at-rest is redefined as matter’s constant pull towards its unity centre due to its sharing-energy.
- Inertia is redefined and generalised as the unity force resulting from both sharing-energy (as a pull, or inertia-at-rest or gravity or weight) and excess-energy (as a push, or inertia-in-motion or heat).
- Matter moves relative to its unity centre, as its reference point, nullifying the base of the observational reference frame and relativity.[3][4][5][6]
III. The New Definition of A Quantum
When
matter with sharing-energy (Es) is forced out of its unity by sufficient
external excess-energy (Ee ≥ Es) as a free particle with the Ee, it transfers
the Ee as inertia-in-motion or heat (involved in an interaction),
by pushing or bumping other particles while equalising their Ee.[5] After
transferring all the Ee (Ee = 0), it returns or joins to a unity, pulling again
with its Es or gravity.
That
is, only a free particle is involved in an interaction with other
particles by pushing with its Ee.
The
free particle, over the hurdle of its Es or gravity (hence a discrete
value), can take on continuous value of Ee, not only integer multiples
of the Es.
The
free particle does not “quantum leap” after the initial hurdle of its Es or gravity
because there is no more hurdle to leap over or come down.
So,
quantisation with the resulting quantum is a misconception. The hypothesis
of quantisation
and the foundation of quantum mechanics collapse.
To
salvage the term, a quantum is redefined as a free particle, with a
minimum initial Ee equal to its Es or gravity.[5]
However,
the current quantum theories, and the practical quantum computing, based on the
hypothesis of quantisation are not so easy to adapt to the
new paradigm. They require more research and major revision to align with this paradigm
shift.
References
https://globaljournals.org/scholarly-articles/the-principles-of-thermodynamics/
